All knowledge, he explains, is actually recollected from this prior existence. It is an interest, however, that shows up plainly in the middle period dialogues, especially in the middle books of the Republic. Stylometry has tended to count the Phaedo among the early dialogues, whereas analysis of philosophical content has tended to place it at the beginning of the middle period.
Similar accounts of the transmigration of souls may be found, with somewhat different details, in Book X of the Republic and in the Phaedrus, as well as in several dialogues of the late period, including the Timaeus and the Laws. No traces of the doctrine of recollection, or the theory of reincarnation or transmigration of souls, are to be found in the dialogues we listed above as those of the early period. The moral psychology of the middle period dialogues also seems to be quite different from what we find in the early period.
Hence, all wrongdoing reflects some cognitive error. But in the middle period, Plato conceives of the soul as having at least three parts:. Republic IV. Republic X.
In both of these dialogues, Plato clearly regards actual physical or sexual contact between lovers as degraded and wasteful forms of erotic expression. For this reason, Plato thinks that most people sadly squander the real power of love by limiting themselves to the mere pleasures of physical beauty. One of the novelties of the dialogues after those of the middle period is the introduction of a new philosophical method.
This method was introduced probably either late in the middle period or in the transition to the late period, but was increasingly important in the late period. Although the middle period dialogues continue to show Socrates asking questions, the questioning in these dialogues becomes much more overtly leading and didactic. In this method, the philosopher collects all of the instances of some generic category that seem to have common characteristics, and then divides them into specific kinds until they cannot be further subdivided.
This method is explicitly and extensively on display in the Sophist, Statesman, and Philebus. One of the most puzzling features of the late dialogues is the strong suggestion in them that Plato has reconsidered his theory of Forms in some way. Although there seems still in the late dialogues to be a theory of Forms although the theory is, quite strikingly, wholly unmentioned in the Theaetetus, a later dialogue on the nature of knowledge , where it does appear in the later dialogues, it seems in several ways to have been modified from its conception in the middle period works.
But then, if Man 2 is male, then what it has in common with the other male things is participation in some further Form, Man 3, and so on. If the Form of Man is itself a perfect male, then the Form shares a property in common with the males that participate in it.
But since the Theory requires that for any group of entities with a common property, there is a Form to explain the commonality, it appears that the theory does indeed give rise to the vicious regress. Of relevance to this discussion is the relative dating of the Timaeus and the Parmenides, since the Theory of Forms very much as it appears in the middle period works plays a prominent role in the Timaeus. Thus, the assignment of a later date to the Timaeus shows that Plato did not regard the objection to the Theory of Forms raised in the Parmenides as in any way decisive.
Whatever value Plato believed that knowledge of abstract entities has for the proper conduct of philosophy, he no longer seems to have believed that such knowledge is necessary for the proper running of a political community. In several of the late dialogues, Socrates is even further marginalized. He is either represented as a mostly mute bystander in the Sophist and Statesman , or else absent altogether from the cast of characters in the Laws and Critias.
In the Theaetetus and Philebus, however, we find Socrates in the familiar leading role. The myth of Atlantis is continued in the unfinished dialogue intended to be the sequel to the Timaeus, the Critias. The Timaeus is also famous for its account of the creation of the universe by the Demiurge. Plato takes the four elements, fire, air, water, and earth which Plato proclaims to be composed of various aggregates of triangles , making various compounds of these into what he calls the Body of the Universe.
Unlike his earlier treatment in the Republic, however, the Laws appears to concern itself less with what a best possible state might be like, and much more squarely with the project of designing a genuinely practicable, if admittedly not ideal, form of government. According to Diogenes Laertius 3. Thomas Brickhouse Email: brickhouse lynchburg.
Nicholas D. Smith Email: ndsmith lclark. Plato — B. Biography a. Birth It is widely accepted that Plato, the Athenian philosopher, was born in B.
Influences on Plato a. Diogenes Laertius also notes other important influences: He mixed together in his works the arguments of Heracleitus, the Pythagoreans, and Socrates. The Pythagoreans Diogenes Laertius 3. Socrates Nonetheless, it is plain that no influence on Plato was greater than that of Socrates.
Phaedo, Republic Bks. Parmenides, Theaetetus, Phaedrus Late c. Other Works Attributed to Plato a. Spuria Several other works, including thirteen letters and eighteen epigrams, have been attributed to Plato. Epigrams Seventeen or eighteen epigrams poems appropriate to funerary monuments or other dedications are also attributed to Plato by various ancient authors.
The Early Dialogues a. Historical Accuracy Although no one thinks that Plato simply recorded the actual words or speeches of Socrates verbatim, the argument has been made that there is nothing in the speeches Socrates makes in the Apology that he could have not uttered at the historical trial.
One recent version of this view has been argued by Charles H. Kahn Most later, but still ancient, interpretations of Plato were essentially Unitarian in their approach. Aristotle, however, was a notable exception. Those who endorse this view reject completely any relevance or validity of sorting or grouping the dialogues into groups, on the ground that any such sorting is of no value to the proper interpretation of any given dialogue. Psychological Positions in the Early Dialogues Socrates also appears to argue for, or directly makes a number of related psychological views: All wrongdoing is done in ignorance, for everyone desires only what is good Protagoras a-c; Gorgias b; Meno 77eb ; In some sense, everyone actually believes certain moral principles, even though some may think they do not have such beliefs, and may disavow them in argument Gorgias b, ea.
The same canbe said of diviners and seers, although they do seem to have some kind of expertise—perhaps only some technique by which to put them in a state of appropriate receptivity to the divine Apology 22b-c; Laches ea; Ion da, d-e; Meno 99c ; No one really knows what happens after death, but it is reasonable to think that death is not an evil; there may be an afterlife, in which the souls of the good are rewarded, and the souls of the wicked are punished Apology 40cc; Crito 54b-c; Gorgias aa.
Proper definitions must state what is common to all examples of the value Euthyphro 6d-e; Meno 72c-d ; Those with expert knowledge or wisdom on a given subject do not err in their judgments on that subject Euthyphro 4e-5a; Euthydemus db , go about their business in their area of expertise in a rational and regular way Gorgias eb , and can teach and explain their subject Gorgias a, eb, a-b; Laches b, e, eb ; Protagoras b-c.
The Middle Dialogues a. Differences between the Early and Middle Dialogues Scholarly attempts to provide relative chronological orderings of the early transitional and middle dialogues are problematical because all agree that the main dialogue of the middle period, the Republic, has several features that make dating it precisely especially difficult.
Immortality and Reincarnation In the early transitional dialogue, the Meno, Plato has Socrates introduce the Orphic and Pythagorean idea that souls are immortal and existed before our births. Moral Psychology The moral psychology of the middle period dialogues also seems to be quite different from what we find in the early period.
Late Transitional and Late Dialogues a. Philosophical Methodology One of the novelties of the dialogues after those of the middle period is the introduction of a new philosophical method. Critique of the Earlier Theory of Forms One of the most puzzling features of the late dialogues is the strong suggestion in them that Plato has reconsidered his theory of Forms in some way. The Creation of the Universe The Timaeus is also famous for its account of the creation of the universe by the Demiurge.
References and Further Reading a. Duke et al. Volume II John Burnet, ed. Volume IV John Burnet, ed. The other significant event was the Peloponnesian War between Athens and Sparta, in which Plato served for a brief time between and B. The defeat of Athens ended its democracy, which the Spartans replaced with an oligarchy. Two of Plato's relatives, Charmides and Critias, were prominent figures in the new government, part of the notorious Thirty Tyrants whose brief rule severely reduced the rights of Athenian citizens.
After the oligarchy was overthrown and democracy was restored, Plato briefly considered a career in politics, but the execution of Socrates in B. After Socrates's death, Plato traveled for 12 years throughout the Mediterranean region, studying mathematics with the Pythagoreans in Italy, and geometry, geology, astronomy and religion in Egypt.
During this time, or soon after, he began his extensive writing. There is some debate among scholars on the order of these writings, but most believe they fall into three distinct periods.
The first, or early, period occurs during Plato's travels B. The Apology of Socrates seems to have been written shortly after Socrates's death. In these dialogues, Plato attempts to convey Socrates's philosophy and teachings.
In the second, or middle, period, Plato writes in his own voice on the central ideals of justice, courage, wisdom and moderation of the individual and society. The Republic was written during this time with its exploration of just government ruled by philosopher kings. In the third, or late, period, Socrates is relegated to a minor role and Plato takes a closer look at his own early metaphysical ideas.
He explores the role of art, including dance, music, drama and architecture, as well as ethics and morality. In his writings on the Theory of Forms, Plato suggests that the world of ideas is the only constant and that the perceived world through our senses is deceptive and changeable.
Sometime around B. It is believed the school was located at an enclosed park named for a legendary Athenian hero. The Academy operated until C. Over its years of operation, the Academy's curriculum included astronomy, biology, mathematics, political theory and philosophy. Plato hoped the Academy would provide a place for future leaders to discover how to build a better government in the Greek city-states.
In B. Dion believed that Dionysius showed promise as an ideal leader. Plato accepted, hoping the experience would produce a philosopher king. But Dionysius fell far short of expectations and suspected Dion, and later Plato, of conspiring against him. He had Dion exiled and Plato placed under "house arrest. According to Diogenes, Plato visited Syracuse while it was under the rule of Dionysius.
Dion, however, later turned against Plato, selling him into slavery. During this time, Plato nearly faced death in Cyrene. Fortunately, chancing upon an admirer who purchased his freedom, Plato was spared and found his way home. Plato would eventually leave Syracuse, while Dion later returned to Syracuse and overthrew Dionysius II, only to be usurped by Callipus, another disciple of Plato. According to one source, Plato died peacefully in his bed listening to the sweet sounds of a Thracian flute girl.
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